(a) A period of rapid eye movement is marked by the short red line segment. The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. b. absence of signs of malfunctioning. A sleep deprived individual generally will fall asleep more quickly than if she were not sleep deprived. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. d. the gender gap between male and female life expectancy has increased. Two of them I didnt even know I was involved in until afterwards (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspective of evolutionary psychology. Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening (Julien, 2005). Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. A number of risk factors have been associated with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and hyperthermia. While individuals suffering from sleep apnea may not be aware of these repeated disruptions in sleep, they do experience increased levels of fatigue. Night terrors apparently occur during the NREM phase of sleep (Provini, Tinuper, Bisulli, & Lagaresi, 2011). The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West, Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). Some sleep-deprived individuals have difficulty staying awake when they stop moving (for example sitting and watching television or driving a car). c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. You have read that sleep is distinguished by low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness. While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). . Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during wakefulness. To keep heroin affordable, many dealers began adding more potent synthetic opioids including fentanyl and carfentanyl to increase the effects of heroin. Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness. Marijuana may also have some promise in the treatment of a variety of medical conditions (Mather, Rauwendaal, Moxham-Hall, & Wodak, 2013; Robson, 2014; Schicho & Storr, 2014). Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. These components include: These steps are conducive to being open to the heightened suggestibility of hypnosis. Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). Tolerance can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a dangerous leveleven to the point of overdose and death. Stimulant users seek aeuphoric high, feelings of intense elation and pleasure, especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or smoking. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. Avoid anything stimulating for an hour before bed. One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. Alertness is associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures. Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas acting in conjunction with one another. Therefore, it is important to make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based therapeutic approach versus as a form of entertainment. In Hilgards experiments, he induced participants into a state of hypnosis, and placed their arms into ice water. This section will consider these questions and explore various explanations for why we sleep. Although she did not experience any dream-like hallucinations, she was diagnosed with narcolepsy as a result of sleep testing. Cognitive-behavioral therapyis a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. Some of these approaches, such as using a bright light as shown inFigure 4.4, have been shown to alleviate some of the problems experienced by individuals suffering from jet lag or from the consequences of rotating shift work. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. As one of their mechanisms of action, cocaine and amphetamines block the reuptake of dopamine from the synapse into the presynaptic cell. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). 1. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, andinsomnia(i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a months time) (Roth, 2007). High doses can induce sleep, cause motor disturbance, memory loss, decreased respiratory function, and death. Obviously, regular narcoleptic episodes could interfere with the ability to perform ones job or complete schoolwork, and in some situations, narcolepsy can result in significant harm and injury (e.g., driving a car or operating machinery or other potentially dangerous equipment). While we all experience altered states of consciousness in the form of sleep on a regular basis, some people use drugs and other substances that result in altered states of consciousness as well. In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, & Nunn, 2008). Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwrights ideas about dreaming have found empirical support. Homeostatic regulation of sleep is evidenced by sleep rebound following sleep deprivation. Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. By analyzing dreams, Freud thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives. Early attempts to treat her condition with a stimulant drug alone were unsuccessful. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, mescaline, DMT, dissociative anesthetics including ketamine and PCP, Increased heart rate and blood pressure that may dissipate over time, Mild to intense perceptual changes with high variability in effects based on strain, method of ingestion, and individual differences, Understand what is meant by consciousness, Explain how circadian rhythms are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, and how circadian cycles can be disrupted, Describe areas of the brain involved in sleep, Understand hormone secretions associated with sleep, Describe several theories aimed at explaining the function of sleep, Differentiate between REM and non-REM sleep, Describe the differences between the three stages of non-REM sleep, Understand the role that REM and non-REM sleep play in learning and memory, Describe the symptoms and treatments of insomnia, Recognize the symptoms of several parasomnias, Describe the symptoms and treatments for sleep apnea, Recognize risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and steps to prevent it, Describe the symptoms and treatments for narcolepsy. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred (Arnulf, 2012). describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. They named each of the three states: "Close," when a male is closer than average to a female and approaching her slowly; "Chasing," when he is approaching quickly; and "Whatever," when he is facing away from her and moving slowly. Thirst. (credit: modification of work by new 1lluminati/Flickr), Medical marijuana shops are becoming more and more common in the United States. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. As the dose increases, people report feeling sedated. A) a mole that looks cancerous B) nasal congestion C) change in heart rate D) issues with breathing Which of the following American health care systems is most known for requiring a referral from a primary care doctor in order to see a specialist? Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years (Mitchell, 2009; Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2011). In the brain, the hypothalamus, which lies above the pituitary gland, is a main center of homeostasis. Primary signs and symptoms of Ebola often include some or several of the following: Fever. Social programs like Medicare: a - offer health coverage for the older adults 24. Vaping as a means to deliver nicotine is becoming increasingly popular, especially among teens and young adults. According to Jung, certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location. In fact, ameta-analysis, which is a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old, we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per day (Ohayon, Carskadon, Guilleminault, & Vitiello, 2004). It is not uncommon for people suffering from insomnia to experience increased levels of anxiety about their inability to fall asleep. For example, a person may work from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. on Monday, 3:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday, and 11:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday. Until recently, the United States Department of Justice routinely arrested people involved and seized marijuana used in medicinal settings. Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. To prevent withdrawal, many people turned to cheaper heroin, which could be bought for $5 a dose or less. The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission. Melatonin is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and the immune system (Hardeland et al., 2006). (a) A typical CPAP device used in the treatment of sleep apnea is (b) affixed to the head with straps, and a mask that covers the nose and mouth. These initiatives include increasing access to treatment and recovery services, increasing access to overdose-reversal drugs like Naloxone, and implementing better public health monitoring systems (NIDA, 2019). The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? (Jayanthi & Ramamoorthy, 2005; Rothman, Blough, & Baumann, 2007). In such instances, the individuals schedule changes so frequently that it becomes difficult for a normal circadian rhythm to be maintained. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. Stage 3is often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because this stage is characterized by low frequency (less than 3 Hz), high amplitudedelta waves(Figure 4.10). Some of these areas include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. Often, however, people wishing to learn to meditate receive some training in techniques to achieve a meditative state. Guilleminault et al. Think meditation might help? However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. With excessive alcohol use, a person might experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim & Hancock, 2013). That is why individuals suffering from sleep deprivation can also put themselves and others at risk when they put themselves behind the wheel of a car or work with dangerous machinery. Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. These effects can occur as a function of accumulated sleep debt or in response to more acute periods of sleep deprivation. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. Loss of appetite. The pons is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Large-scale public health campaigns by the National Institutes of Health and the National Institute of Drug Abuse have led to recent declines in the opioid crisis. Homeostasis refers to the body's need to reach and maintain a certain state of equilibrium. While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. Fever. For example, body temperature fluctuates cyclically over a 24-hour period (Figure 4.2). A person with asleep debtdoes not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. Methadone clinicshelp people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone. It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. Wakefulnessis characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior. The participant is encouraged to use his or her imagination. Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our surroundings and our internal states. c. LINK TO LEARNING: To learn more about some of the most commonly abused prescription and street drugs, check out the, LINK TO LEARNING: Feeling stressed? The brain waves associated with REM sleep, outlined in the red box in (a), look very similar to those seen (b) during wakefulness. a. Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. Meditationis the act of focusing on a single target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. Obstructive sleep apneaoccurs when an individuals airway becomes blocked during sleep, and air is prevented from entering the lungs. that would be one of the problems that Ive encountered. There was a significant positive correlation between the degree to which women thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams (Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006). You have read that the pineal gland releases melatonin during sleep (Figure 4.6). You were capable of engaging in the all of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though you were not aware of doing so. As part of treatment, the sleeping environment is often modified to make it a safer place for those suffering from RBD (Zangini, Calandra-Buonaura, Grimaldi, & Cortelli, 2011). These include daydreaming, intoxication, and unconsciousness due to anesthesia. (West et al., 2009, p. 114). Those who continue to have insomnia, particularly if it affects their quality of life, should seek professional treatment. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in which a persons circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external environment. As mentioned earlier, lack of sleep can result in decreased mental alertness and cognitive function. c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. The low cost coupled with lower risk of overdose than with opiate drugs is making crystal meth a popular choice among drug users today (NIDA, 2019). It is also associated with paralysis of muscle systems in the body with the exception of those that make circulation and respiration possible. Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Research shows that the most severe effects of sleep deprivation occur when a person stays awake for more than 24 hours (Killgore & Weber, 2014; Killgore et al., 2007), or following repeated nights with fewer than four hours in bed (Wickens, Hutchins, Lauk, Seebook, 2015). . Here are some tips to maintain healthy sleep: Aparasomniais one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. b. life expectancy has reached a new high. Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. Sore throat. How does hypnosis work? The pituitary gland also secretes growth hormone, during sleep, which plays a role in physical growth and maturation as well as other metabolic processes (Bartke, Sun, & Longo, 2013). typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. Thecollective unconscious, as described byJung, is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. This is known as the REM rebound, and it suggests that REM sleep is also homeostatically regulated. Recent research (Horikawa, Tamaki, Miyawaki, & Kamitani, 2013) has uncovered new techniques by which researchers may effectively detect and classify the visual images that occur during dreaming by using fMRI for neural measurement of brain activity patterns, opening the way for additional research in this area. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. Its simply that they feel so overwhelmed and stressed that they cannot fall asleep or stay asleep. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. . Ethanol, which we commonly refer to as alcohol, is in a class of psychoactive drugs known as depressants (Figure 4.15). These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves (Figure 4.7). If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are you may have sleep debt. 3. Research indicates that included among these possible benefits are increased capacities for creative thinking (Cai, Mednick, Harrison, Kanady, & Mednick, 2009; Wagner, Gais, Haider, Verleger, & Born, 2004), language learning (Fenn, Nusbaum, & Margoliash, 2003; Gmez, Bootzin, & Nadel, 2006), and inferential judgments (Ellenbogen, Hu, Payne, Titone, & Walker, 2007). Some animals never sleep (e.g., some fish and amphibian species); other animals sleep very little without apparent negative consequences (e.g., giraffes); yet some animals (e.g., rats) die after two weeks of sleep deprivation (Siegel, 2008). Vaping uses battery-powered devices, sometimes called e-cigarettes, that deliver liquid nicotine and flavorings as a vapor. Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS (Berkowitz, 2012; Mage & Donner, 2006; Thach, 2005). Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. (a) Delta waves, which are low frequency and high amplitude, characterize (b) slow-wave stage 3 and stage 4 sleep. We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. EVERYDAY CONNECTION: Solutions to Support Healthy Sleep, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). One of the most common treatments for sleep apnea involves the use of a special device during sleep. Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. Early versions of this theory proposed that dreams were not the meaning-filled representations of angst proposed by Freud and others, but were rather the result of our brain attempting to make sense of (synthesize) the neural activity (activation) that was happening during REM sleep. Other depressants include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. 1. For example, people who undergo chemotherapy will often be prescribed marijuana to stimulate their appetites and prevent excessive weight loss resulting from the side effects of chemotherapy treatment. The sleep and dreaming researcher Rosalind Cartwright, however, believes that dreams simply reflect life events that are important to the dreamer. It is typically consumed in pill form. Interestingly, since the advent of electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. 2. These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health care professions and service industries, and they are associated with persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser, 1995). Which of the following is true regarding patient adherence: d - all of the above (a - the average adherence rate for taking medication to treat acute illness is about 67%, b - adherence to taking medicine . Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90 . In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). This can lead to people compulsively using stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines, in part to try to reestablish the persons physical and psychological pre-use baseline. Homeostasisis the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. Medical marijuana is marijuana that is prescribed by a doctor for the treatment of a health condition. The brains clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as thesuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). As you will learn when you study social roles, peoples behavior can be shaped by their expectations of how they should act in a given situation. Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Snchez-de-la-Torre, Campos-Rodriguez, & Barb, 2012). During this time, an individuals heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders.
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